So commonly was the Virginia forest understood to be open that William Bullock, before his first visit there, explained (1649:3) that in Virginia people can see “above a mile and a half in the Wood, and the Trees stand at that distance, that you may drive Carts or Coaches between the thickest of them, being clear from boughs a great height.” (Bullock 1649:3).
I thank Mark Plummer for many useful conversations.
1 (“bailiff posthaste,” 170; Colón’s share of budget, 175–76); Phillips and Phillips 1992:120–211 (ship lengths, 144–45); Varela and Gil eds. 53 Problems with tree planting: Author’s visits; Normile 2007; Yu, Yu, and Li, 2006.
But nothing like this worldwide exchange had existed before, still less sprung up so quickly, or functioned so continuously. 1627. 2006; Rich and Ayala 2006; Carter and Mendis 2002:570–76. I ignore many, many complications here. By the end of the nineteenth century, Brazil’s great writer, Euclides da Cunha, was celebrating his nation’s mixed heritage (Hecht: forthcoming); meanwhile, Argentina’s ruling “Generation of Eighty” was boasting that Argentina was the “only great white nation of South America” (Chace 1971:2). 15, 272–76; Salazar y Salcedo, G. d. 1603. 1607(?). 11 Raised fields: Denevan 2001:24–25, 219, 264–65; Erickson 1994. (Jorge Velho, D.?)
30 Use of “abandoned” fields and plants on them: Rountree, Clarke, and Mountford 2007:42; Rountree 2005:9, 56; Rountree 1993a:173–74.
:134–36 (Garrido’s wheat as foundation of Mexican crop). In B&R 3:209–22, at 216–17 (Legazpi sells property).
To drive them back into the fields, they imported Portuguese merchants and financed their enterprises with low-interest loans, meanwhile denying all credit to ex-slaves.
Infectious disease was not. 1992:95–365 (Colón’s and other letters); Gould 1984 (Colón’s crew); Oviedo y Valdés 1851:bks. 2004 (swallowtail); Martin et al. Woodruff quotes two contemporaries who say that Hancock did analyze Goodyear’s samples. As Morison noted, though, the harbor is open to the north, “rendering the anchorage untenable” in winter storms, and potable water was about a mile away (1983:430–31). 66 Galleons increase in size: Chaunu 2001:198 (“administration itself”); Quan 1972c:470–73; Schurz 1939:194–95. Even Colón was not an evangelizer; on his later voyages, at the monarchs’ insistence, he brought clergy, but made no effort at conversion. 2, 33–39; Aguado 1919:vol. Colón’s sickness: Colón 2004:329; Las Casas 1951:vol. 4.2). Las Casas (1951:vol. 4 Shuttle flight: I owe this simile to William Kelso.
1914 (captured five times); Roze 1898:148–82ff. 8, Schurz 1939:371–84; Gemelli Careri 1699–1700:vol. Most of the group was too sick to continue to Santo Domingo, Colón’s son Hernán wrote later.
To forestall this possibility, governments can debase their coins by mixing in less valuable materials.
In idem 117–18 (“us and ours”). 3, chap. Statement, 4 Oct. ; 1998:346–57, 376–86; Thornton 1999:141–42; Deive 1989:36–42; Las Casas 1951:vol. 2006 (swallowtail); Guerrero et al. 7 Definitions of çiçiones: Author’s interviews, Sessions (Cook also discusses the issue); Covarrubias y Orozco 2006: fol. 1, 125–26.
Firsthand accounts include B&R 29:201–07, 208–58; 32:218–60; 44:146. In Varela and Gil eds. Index entries under “Colón” indicate his general tone: “complaining,” “deceptive,” “exaggeration and boasting,” “preoccupation with glory, with lineage,” “self-pity,” “self-serving.” For reactions to Colón over time, see Stavans 2001. 2007).
Several China scholars—and some Chinese provincial officers—told me that Dazhai had been a fraud from the beginning. In B&R 7:83–94, at 89; Desmariñas, G. P. 1591.
His additional argument that deforestation and burning affected climate as much as eight thousand years ago has been the subject of attacks (e.g., Olofsson and Hickler 2008) and defenses (e.g., Müller and Pross 2007). 1, 43 (more than fourteen thousand in 1546), vol. 5 Collapse of Zaytun: Interview, Ding Yuling; Chen 1983; Lin 1990:169 (silting); So 2000:122–29. “Hundred” refers to the number of acres supposedly granted to each partner in the enterprise. 14 Differences between vivax and falciparum: Mueller et al.
2, 572–74; López de Gómara 1922:vol. In Wright ed. 19 Slaves imported to Africa, African demand: Harms 2002:135–37 (imports, all quotes); Lovejoy 2000:57–58. 14 Palmares location, size: Location: Gomes 2005:87 (map); Orser 1994:9 (map). Relation of the Voyage to Luzon. 2005. In Brown 1890:vol. table A-7. Letter to Felipe II, 12 Aug.
See also Gade 1992 (“sophistication,” 461), 1975. 27 Indian maize field size: Maxwell 1910:73; Smith 2007b:284 (“their fields or gardens [are] some 20 acres, some 40. some 100. some 200”). Garner says it was “more than 100,000 tons” (1988:898).
2). 42 Dazhai: Zhao and Woudstra 2007 (slogans, 193); Shapiro 2001:95–114, 137 (calluses, 99; slogans, 96, 107).
7 Yuegang harbor: Author’s visits; Li 2001:chap.
In Wright ed. 1, 388 (“domineer” [bk.
3 Tertian fever: A less common type of malaria is associated with a seventy-two-hour cycle: quartan fever. Many more were founded after Jamestown, among them Santa Fe.
See also, Letter, idem, to Burgomaster de Graaf, 16 Aug. 1659. 2004 (forest understory); Rocheleau et al. 1 (“In reality the encomienda, at least in the first fifty years of its existence, was looked upon by its beneficiaries as a subterfuge for slavery,” xiii). Relation of the Filipinas Islands. In ibid. 1, 250 (“strands of pearl”); Acarete du Biscay 1698:61 (silver paving); Quesada 1890:vol. 56 Lack of potato in Mexico: Ugent 1968; Humboldt 1822:vol. 47 Industrial monoculture: Pollan (2006:41–48) evocatively describes this transformation. 44 Guano monopoly and protest: Skaggs 1994:10–15, 21–30; Mathew 1968:569–74; Markham 1862:308–09 (scorn for Peru); Anon.
1, 131–37; Altolaguirre y Duvale 1914:xv–lxxxvi; Anghiera 1912:vol.
Relation of the Second Voyage. 36 Jumble of ecological zones: Rountree 1996:4–14.
But that was not only because they died.
2 (“sudden and sharp,” 79); Pike 2007:247–51; Fortune 1970:pt. 1, 276 (“proclaim them”). By importing Han workers, the government hoped both to produce needed rubber and to “settle” a crucial border with loyal citizens. Half of marriages interracial: Lokken 2004:14–16; Valdés 1978:34–44; Love 1971 (“One of the remarkable features of the marriage patterns of persons of African descent in the parish of Santa Veracruz was the fact that [of a total of 1,662 marriages with an African spouse] 847 individuals of non-Negroid ancestry married persons of color,” 84); 1967:102–03.
2009; Packard 2007:23–24.
1, 251 (Dec. 1, bk. 2, 82–90 (“distance,” 84). Heaven was presumably near the river’s headwaters. 1994 (Mexico to U.S., 11594); Fry et al. The Popham colony began soon after Jamestown, but I include it as its prime mover was also an organizer of the Virginia Company.
I am grateful to the farmers in Whately, Mass., who explained this to me. Colón also relied on the cosmographer Pierre d’Ailly, who argued that East Asia had to be near West Africa (Nunn 1935).
2.
In International Labour Office 1943:104–12 (“plant,” 110). 2.
2007 (Great Dismal Swamp); Franklin and Schweninger 2001:86 (thousands in swamp); Aptheker 1996. 17 Drake: Salaman (1985:144–58), Roze (1898:63–64, 70–74), and, to a lesser extent, McNeill (1999), credit the story.
None offered proof, though. A Declaration of the State of the Colony and Affaires in Virginia.
The waterfalls and rapids could only be negotiated by canoes, and even these frequently capsized, with great loss of life (Anon. 1697.
5 Apple snail: Joshi 2005; Caguano and Joshi 2002.
105 Worldwide spread of tobacco: Brook 2008:117–51 (“to buy tobacco,” 137); Céspedes del Castillo 1992:22–48ff. Mosquitoes are unlikely to pick it up at any one feeding, but have a lot of time to do it.
57 “revolutionary events”: Song 2007:2. 1954–:vol. 28 Malaria and Craig’s railroad: Craig 2007:271 (incapacitates half, see also note on 304); 381–83 (refusal of payment); 382–88 (two-thirds, three-quarters sick); 407 (120, more than half sick); 408 (“complete collapse”); 387–403 passim (struggle home). 1968:vol. This is the most common seventeenth-century translation of the encyclical Regnans in Excelsis (1570). In Wright ed. 2009.
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